Computer science in high school

Computer science in high school

1    Introduction

Computers have changed our lives, influencing and dominating our daily routines. Originally conceived as calculating machines to solve engineering problems, computers have now become information-processing machines for digital data. Text, images and music encoded as digital data can be processed, stored, and sent to other computers through various networks. Computers can store very large amounts of data, calculate tremendously fast, and be programmed for special tasks, making them universally applicable machines.

Switzerland is a pioneer country when it comes to computer science: It was the first country in continental Europe to have a working computer as early as 1950 with the Z4, developed in Germany and used at ETH Zurich. With the groundbreaking idea of “generating automatically a computation plan,” ETH Professor Heinz Rutishauser opened the door to “compiler construction” and played a major role in shaping the first systematically created, higher-level programming language, “ALGOL”. ETH Professor Niklaus Wirth later developed the programming language PASCAL and constructed the personal computers (PCs) Lilith and Ceres, which both included mouse-operated graphical user interfaces. Despite these remarkable achievements, computer science received little attention in schools – with some exceptions in a few high schools.

Sixty years ago, anyone seeking a university education had to pass the Matura at a high school recognised at the federal level. Three options were available in addition to the common general education: Type A (Latin and Greek), Type B (Latin and English or Italian), Type C (Descriptive Geometry and English or Italian). Matura students of types A and B usually enrolled at a Swiss university, and Type C students attended one of the two technical universities, ETH or EPUL (today’s EPFL). Type C students dealt with technical problems and used mechanical analog computers such as slide or disc rules. Around 1975, these devices were replaced by pocket calculators. The advent of personal computers in the early 1980s also happened in schools. However, the first PCs did not contain any user software and had to be programmed directly in BASIC or PASCAL.

Professor Urs Hochstrasser, Director of the Federal Office for Education and Science, was one of the few scientists who already had experience using computers at that time. At the beginning of the fifties, he was a doctoral student in the institute of Professor Eduard Stiefel and performed calculations for his thesis with the help of the Z4.

2    Applied Mathematics

Hochstrasser was convinced early on that computers would change the world. In the preface of the book Programming Concepts with Python and TigerJyton by Jarka Arnold, Tobias Kohn, and Aegidius Plüss, he writes:

“As Director of the Federal Office for Education and Science, it was a matter of concern to me to establish computer science as an independent subject in high schools. Specifically, this also raised the question of whether the integration of an ICT (Information and Communication Technology) subject into teaching programmes was sufficient or whether a more comprehensive knowledge of computer science, which allows more autonomous use of modern computer technology, should be taught.”

In the summer of 1985, Hochstrasser made an agreement with Alain Bron, then president of the association “Société Suisse de l’Informatique Educative (SSIE)”, that four working groups should prepare reports on the following scenarios by the beginning of November of the same year:

Replacement of Descriptive Geometry:

• Interdisciplinary merging of Mathematics, Computer Science, and Descriptive Geometry starting from graphical concepts
  Lead: Raymond Morel, Geneva
• Use of computer science in Numerical Mathematics
  Lead: Jean-François Emmenegger, Fribourg

Introduction of computer science as a “new technology” into existing subjects:

• Introduction of computer science in Economics and Accounting
  Lead: Dino Dotta, Bellinzona
• Introduction of computer science in natural science subjects
  Lead: Alain Bron, Yverdon

The working group of Jean-François Emmenegger prevailed, especially because the commission member Walter Gander had written the book Computermathematik (Birkhäuser, 1985) in 1984, which seemed to support the idea of “Informatik in numerischer Mathematik”. Computers in 1985 were indeed precisely used as “calculators” and not, like today, as information-processing machines for digital data. The report of Jean-François Emmenegger’s working group states:

“It seems inevitable to give this discipline the same status in high schools in the future as, for example, Mathematics. However, any future-oriented education is based on fundamental principles. Thus, algorithms and data structures have the same importance in computer science as functions and matrices have in mathematics.”

Furthermore, the report of the working group of Jean-François Emmenegger points out:

1. In the present situation of the MAV (Maturitätsanerkennungs-Verordnung) revision of 1984, it seems possible and desirable to replace Descriptive Geometry with the new subject called Methods of Computer Science in type C high schools.
2. In the first phase, the main emphasis could be on numerical and geometrical applications (following the report of the Morel group). Non-numerical applications, for which at present there is little teaching experience at the high school level, would, for the time being, remain secondary. The material of non-numerical applications must be prepared in textbook form and task collections in a manner suitable for the high school level.

Teachers of Descriptive Geometry, however, protested against Hochstrasser’s proposition: If Descriptive Geometry was abandoned, high school students would lose spatial thinking, which was not acceptable. A typical Swiss compromise was therefore suggested: Descriptive Geometry would be replaced by the new subject of Applied Mathematics. The same teachers could continue teaching Descriptive Geometry until their retirement, but new teachers would have the opportunity to introduce computer science to it as well. The NZZ reported on 3 June 1986, under the title Neuerungen für Maturanden:

“The Federal Council revised the MAV and put it into force on 1 July 1986. The opening of the Matura Recognition Ordinance (MAV) corresponds to a wish of the cantonal education directors. It has been decided that the ninth Matura subject in type C will now be called “Applied Mathematics”. In this subject, either descriptive geometry according to the previous tradition or another chapter of mathematics can be treated in depth, whereby various aspects of computer science will naturally flow into the lessons. Moreover, the purpose article explicitly states that future Matura students are to be familiarised with the methods of modern information processing.”

3    Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

The new subject of Applied Mathematics was well-received in high schools, and computer science teaching programming was developed in Geneva, Wetzikon, Baden, Solothurn and other places. Textbooks with programming exercises were produced. Matura students were thus trained in problem-solving and algorithmic (computational) thinking. However, there was no obligatory curriculum for the new subject. On the one hand, teachers benefited from the freedom to design their lessons; on the other hand, various schools continued to teach Descriptive Geometry while others taught Applied Mathematics. ETH Zurich also retained Descriptive Geometry for its entrance examination (which is essentially based on material studied for the Matura) because no curriculum for computer science could have been required from the candidates for the examination. Computer science classes often overburdened teachers with system installation, frequent system changes, breakdowns, and technical problems.

Often, enthusiastic students were more knowledgeable about such practical problems than the teachers themselves. At the beginning of the nineties, more and more commercial software for PCs was developed and new application programs emerged that could also be valuable in schools. This led to a shift in opinions: “What is the point of programming in school anymore? Good handling of computers and the newly introduced internet are perfectly sufficient. Moreover, computers are needed in all subjects, so computer science education should be interdisciplinary”.

There were cautionary voices, for example Walter Gander, then Head of the Department of Computer Science at ETH Zurich. In June 1992, he wrote an article in the NZZ with the title: Is the student becoming just a computer user? A questionable paradigm shift in computer science education. But they remained without effect.

The Matura reform of 1995 took up the idea of introducing computer science to other existing subjects but denied the importance of Computer Science as an independent subject. “Computer Science” became “ICT” (Information and Communication Technology) and, thus, interdisciplinary knowledge. The nationwide evaluation of the Gymnasium Matura (EVAMAR) noted: “The core subject Physics and Applications of Mathematics includes computer science content. However, this does not make Computer Science a stand-alone offering.”

Computer science usage became more and more complex, and teachers needed training. Companies like Intel and Microsoft negotiated with governments and started offering training for their products to entire countries. The 1995 MAV reform gives a wrong picture of computer science, depicting it as surfing the internet, using Microsoft Office, or other ICT applications. However, computer science is the study of systematic, automated processing of information, information storage, information management, and information transfer.

4    Computer Science as a complementary subject

After the MAV reform in 1995, unease grew both in education and industry. Many computer science students at ETH Zurich did not pass the first intermediate exam because they had the wrong image of computer science. In 2006, SARIT (the Swiss Association for Research in IT) raised the problem at a conference in Basel: “How to make a smooth transition between secondary school and university?” Representatives of the Hasler Foundation took part in this conference and wanted to help to remedy the situation. In 2006, the Hasler Foundation launched its support program FIT (Fit in Informatik) with a horizon of ten years and an endowment of 20 million Swiss francs:

“The goal of this programme is to introduce and anchor computer science education in schools. In particular, computer science is to become a compulsory part of high school education. Genuine computer literacy, however, extends over the entire duration of schooling and is adapted to each level. Computer science education is fundamentally different from media education – the use of notebooks, smartphones, etc. – and is concerned with the principles and methods of how people can efficiently use computers. Just as the natural sciences explain the material world, computer science explains the world of information. Computer science in high schools plays a key role. Future primary school teachers receive their professional training in high school. Without computer science at this level, there will never be computer science-educated teachers.”

In 2007, with the support of Federal Councillor Pascal Couchepin, the Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK) introduced Computer Science as a non-compulsory supplementary subject in the Gymnasium. On 12 June 2008, the relevant curriculum framework was adopted. Computer science is back in the Gymnasium, but it does not have much impact because there are less demanding subjects that Gymnasium students can choose as supplementary subjects for their Matura. The industry was also dissatisfied with the resulting shortage of specialists. The umbrella organization ICT Switzerland published a position paper in 2010 on this issue.

Memorandum: On the lack of computer science education in our schools (ICT Switzerland, 20.07.2011)

The signatories from the computer science industry, from the two technical universities ETH Zurich and EPF Lausanne, and the cantonal universities observe with interest the proposals for and the discussions about the various school reforms (Lehrplan 21, Plan d’études romand, Harmos, Gymnasium). They note that computer science is not being given its rightful place as a leading science. The industrial society of the 21st century still agrees that basic subjects such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry belong to compulsory school education: No high technology without mathematics, no engineering science without physics, no natural science/medicine without chemistry. However, many people see computer science only as information and communication technologies (ICT), i.e., with everyday usage of computers for internet navigation, writing, spreadsheets, graphics presentation, digital telephony, and photography. In our modern world, however, nothing works without computer science – yet it is not recognised as a basic subject in Swiss schools.

What should the teaching of computer science in schools look like? The Informatics Europe & ACM Europe Working Group defines in its report (April 2013):

Computer Science in Schools = Digital Literacy + Informatics

• Digital Literacy (ICT) is about the use of computers
• Informatics covers the science behind information technology
• Both parts should be taught compulsory in European schools for all students from first grade on

Programming lessons are also necessary. Programming, like number crunching in mathematics, is important for brain development! Programming is creative and constructive engineering work. It teaches exact work and algorithmic thinking (computational thinking), which are important for problem-solving.

5    Computer Science becomes compulsory in high school

Jürg Kohlas, Jürg Schmid, and Carl August Zehnder published the book Informatik@Gymnasium in 2013. They explain why compulsory Computer Science is necessary in high school. On 7 July 2016, a working group of the SI (the Swiss Informatics Society) and the SVIA (the Swiss Association for Informatics in Education) presented their curriculum proposal for Computer Science as a basic subject. On 27 October 2017, the EDK published the framework curriculum for compulsory Computer Science. Although Computer Science will not be a basic subject, it will be included in the catalog of compulsory subjects alongside Economics and Law as of 27 June 2018.

6    Computer Science as a basic subject

On 28 June 2023, the Federal Council approved a total revision of the MAV, finally introducing Computer Science as a basic subject and thus fulfilling a forty-year-old expectation.

Bern, 28.06.2023: “On 28 June 2023, the Federal Council approved the revised legal basis for the gymnasial Matura. Before this, the Conference of Cantonal Directors of Education EDK had also approved the new legal basis at its plenary meeting on 22 June. The resolutions lay the foundation for a substantial further development of the gymnasial Matura. They strengthen the ability of Matura students to study and ensure the comparability of Matura certificates throughout Switzerland. The total revision updates the existing ordinance of the Federal Council and the identically adjusted regulations of the EDK on the recognition of gymnasial Matura certificates as well as the administrative agreement between the Federal Council and the EDK of 1995. It ensures the quality of the gymnasium Matura throughout Switzerland and guarantees that Matura students continue to have exam-free access to universities and teacher education colleges. The revised legal foundations include various quality-enhancing elements. They strengthen basic subject competencies in the language of instruction and in Mathematics and upgrade the compulsory subjects of Computer Science, Economics, and Law to basic subjects. In addition, the catalog of core and supplementary subjects will be opened up, allowing the cantons to offer additional subjects. Furthermore, equal opportunities, as well as exchange and mobility, are promoted, and a binding minimum duration of four years is set for all gymnasium courses leading to the Matura, which is recognised throughout Switzerland. The rules for passing the Matura examination remain unchanged.”

2 July 2023